Southeast Australian Shelf
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LME 42: Southeast Australian Shelf

Bordering country:

Australia

LME total area:

1,199,787 km²

LME overall risk:

This LME falls in the cluster of LMEs that exhibit high rates of increase in MPA coverage.
Based on a combined measure of the Human Development Index and the averaged indicators for fish & fisheries and pollution & ecosystem health modules, the overall risk factor is very low.

Productivity

Chlorophyll-A:

The annual Chlorophyll a concentration (CHL) cycle has a maximum peak (0.325 mg.m^-3) in October and a minimum (0.216 mg.m^-3) during July. The average CHL is 0.268 mg.m^-3. Maximum primary productivity (154 g.C.m^-2.y^-1) occurred during 1998 and minimum primary productivity (126 g.C.m^-2.y^-1) during 2002. There is a statistically significant increasing trend in Chlorophyll of 0.870 % from 2003 through 2013. The average primary productivity is 142 g.C.m^-2.y^-1, which places this LME in Group 2 of 5 categories (with 1 = lowest and 5= highest).

Primary productivity:

Sea Surface Temperature:

From 1957 to 2012, the Southeast Australian Shelf LME #42 has warmed by 0.61°C, thus belonging to Category 3 (moderate warming LME). The thermal history of this LME features a long-term ascending trend, although this warming was quite erratic, including major reversals. Some peculiarities of this LME’s thermal history are likely caused by its location as the southernmost Australian LME. Therefore, this LME is strongly affected by the Subantarctic and Antarctic. The most striking difference between this LME and other Australian LMEs is the absence of a major peak in 1998 linked to the 1997-98 El Niño. Instead, SST peaked in 2001. A similar warm event peaked in 2000 in the adjacent Southwest Australian Shelf LME #43. The all-time maximum of 1989 correlates with the peak of 1988 in the Sulu-Celebes Sea LME #37, North Australian Shelf LME #39, West-Central Australian Shelf LME #44, and lesser peaks of 1989 in the Southwest Australian Shelf LME #43 and of 1988 in the Northwest Australian Shelf LME #45. The peak of 1961 occurred simultaneously in the adjacent Southwest Australian Shelf LME #43.

Fish and Fisheries

Among the groups fished in this LME are scallop, rock lobster, abalone, tuna, piked dogfish and blue grenadier.

Annual catch:

Total reported landings from the LME have been on the rise, recording 33,000 t in 2004, with a notable increase in the landings of blue grenadier over the last ten years.

Catch value:

As a result of the increased catches of southern bluefin tuna in the 1960s and 1970s, the annual reported landings attained high values of over 170 million US$ (in 2005 real US$) during this period.

Marine Trophic Index and Fishing-in-Balance index:

From early 1990s to 2004, both the MTI and the FiB indexes have increased in the LME, indicating a development of new offshore fisheries in this period. Since then, both indexes have declined indicating ‘fishing down’ of the food web.

Stock status:

The Stock-Catch Status Plots indicate that more than half of the stocks in the LME are currently either overexploited or have collapsed, but only about 25% of the catch biomass is from such stocks.

Catch from bottom impacting gear:

The percentage of catch from the bottom gear type to the total catch increased from 6% in the 1950s to its first peak at around 45% in 1999. Then, this percentage kept decreasing and fluctuated between 30% and 45% in the recent decade.

Fishing effort:

The total effective effort continuously increased from around 3 million kW in the 1950s to its peak around 94 million kW in 1993.

Primary Production Required:

The primary production required (PPR) to sustain the reported landings in this LME is currently below 2.5%.

Catch potential projections (under global warming):

Pollution and Ecosystem Health

Pollution

Nutrient ratio, Nitrogen load and Merged Indicator:

Human activities in watersheds are affecting nutrients transported by rivers into LMEs. Large amounts of nutrients (in particular nitrogen load) entering coastal waters of LMEs can result in high biomass algal blooms, leading to hypoxic or anoxic conditions, increased turbidity and changes in community composition, among other effects. In addition, changes in the ratio of nutrients entering LMEs can result in dominance by algal species that have deleterious effects (toxic, clog gills of shellfish, etc.) on ecosystems and humans.
An overall nutrient indicator (Merged Nutrient Indicator) based on 2 sub-indicators: Nitrogen Load and Nutrient Ratio (ratio of dissolved Silica to Nitrogen or Phosphorus - the Index of Coastal Eutrophication Potential or ICEP) was calculated.

Nitrogen load:

The Nitrogen Load risk level for contemporary (2000) conditions was very low. (level 1 of the five risk categories, where 1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). Based on a “current trends” scenario (Global Orchestration), this remained the same in 2030 and 2050.

Nutrient ratio:

The Nutrient Ratio (ICEP) risk level for contemporary (2000) conditions was moderate (3). According to the Global Orchestration scenario, this remained the same in 2030 and 2050.

Merged nutrient indicator:

The risk level for the Merged Nutrient Indicator for contemporary (2000) conditions was very low (1). According to the Global Orchestration scenario, this remained the same in 2030 and 2050.

POPs:

This LME includes Melbourne and the vicinities. Three samples from 3 locations are available. It shows average concentrations (ng.g^-1 of pellets) of 134 (range 70 -223) for PCBs, 58 (range 24-77) for DDTs, and 11.1 (range from not detected to 20.7) for HCHs. All the averages correspond to risk category 3 of the five risk categories (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). A high concentration of PCBs (223 ng.g^-1) was recorded in a sample from Melbourne, and can be explained by legacy pollution. Moderate levels of DDTs pollution were observed in this LME. Dominance of DDT over the degradation products was observed, suggesting current inputs of DDTs. Agricultural application and/or antifouling paint may explain the moderate level of DDTs. Extremely high concentration of HCHs (20.7 ng.g^-1) was detected at one location (Queenscliff). The collection was made in 2010 after the onset of regulation by the Stockholm Convention. Illegal usage is suspected. Source identification of HCHs and DDT is necessary.

Plastic debris:

Modelled estimates of floating plastic abundance (items km^-2), for both micro-plastic (<4.75 mm) and macro-plastic (>4.75 mm), indicate that this LME is in the group with relatively high levels of plastic concentration. Estimates are based on three proxy sources of litter: shipping density, coastal population density and the level of urbanisation within major watersheds, with enhanced run-off. The high values are due to the relative importance of these sources in this LME. The abundance of floating plastic in this category is estimated to be on average over 100 times higher that those LMEs with lowest values. There is limited evidence from sea-based direct observations and towed nets to support this conclusion.

Ecosystem Health

Mangrove and coral cover:

0.003% of this LME is covered by mangroves (US Geological Survey, 2011).

Reefs at risk:

Not applicable

Marine Protected Area change:

The Southeast Australian Shelf LME experienced an increase in MPA coverage from 961 km² prior to 1983 to 248,316 km² by 2014. This represents an increase of 25,735%, within the high category of MPA change.

Cumulative Human Impact:

The Southeast Australian Shelf LME experiences an average overall cumulative human impact (score 3.53; maximum LME score 5.22), but which is still well above the LME with the least cumulative impact. It falls in risk category 3 of the five risk categories (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). This LME is most vulnerable to climate change. Of the 19 individual stressors, three connected to climate change have the highest average impact on the LME: ocean acidification (0.98; maximum in other LMEs was 1.20), UV radiation (0.72; maximum in other LMEs was 0.76), and sea surface temperature (1.49; maximum in other LMEs was 2.16). Other key stressors include commercial shipping, sea level rise, and ocean based pollution.

Ocean Health Index:

The Southeast Australian Shelf LME scores above average on the Ocean Health Index compared to other LMEs (score 79 out of 100; range for other LMEs was 57 to 82 but still relatively low. This score indicates that the LME is below its optimal level of ocean health, although there are some aspects that are doing well. Its score in 2013 increased 1 point compared to the previous year, due in large part to changes in the scores for natural products and coastal livelihoods. This LME scores lowest on food provision and coastal protection goals and highest on artisanal fishing opportunities, carbon storage, coastal livelihoods & economies, clean water and habitat biodiversity goals. It falls in risk category 1 of the five risk categories, which is the lowest level of risk (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk).

Socio-economics

Indicators of demographic trends, economic dependence on ecosystem services, human wellbeing and vulnerability to present-day extreme climate events and projected sea level rise, are assessed for this LME. To compare and rank LMEs, they were classified into five categories of risk (from 1 to 5, corresponding to lowest, low, medium, high and highest risk, respectively) based on the values of the individual indicators. In the case of economic revenues, the LMEs were grouped to 5 classes of revenues from lowest, low, medium, high and highest, as revenues did not translate to risk.

Population:

The coastal area stretches over 214,240 km². A current population of 6 706 thousand in 2010 is projected to increase to 8 158 thousand in 2100, with a density of 31 persons per km² in 2010 increasing to 38 per km² by 2100. About 17% of coastal population lives in rural areas, and is projected to increase in share to 29% in 2100.

Coastal poor:

The indigent population makes up 14% of the LME’s coastal dwellers. This LME places in the medium-risk category based on percentage and in the medium-risk category using absolute number of coastal poor (present day estimate).

Revenues and Spatial Wealth Distribution:

Fishing and tourism depend on ecosystem services provided by LMEs. This LME ranks in the low-revenue category in fishing revenues based on yearly average total ex-vessel price of US 2013 $221million for the period 2001-2010. Fish protein accounts for 8% of the total animal protein consumption of the coastal population. Its yearly average tourism revenue for 2004-2013 of US 2013 $38 113 million places it in the high-revenue category. On average, LME-based tourism income contributes 12% to the national GDPs of the LME coastal states. Spatial distribution of economic activity (e.g. spatial wealth distribution) measured by night-light and population distribution as coarse proxies can range from 0.0000 (totally equal distribution and lowest risk) to 1.0000 (concentrated in 1 place and most inequitable and highest risk). The Night Light Development Index (NLDI) thus indicates the level of spatial economic development, and that for this LME falls in the category with very low risk.

Human Development Index:

Using the Human Development Index (HDI) that integrates measures of health, education and income, the present-day LME HDI belongs to the very high HDI and very low-risk category. Based on an HDI of 0.942, this LME has an HDI Gap of 0.058, the difference between present and highest possible HDI (1.000). The HDI Gap measures an overall vulnerability to external events such as disease or extreme climate related events, due to less than perfect health, education, and income levels, and is independent of the harshness of and exposure to specific external shocks.
HDI values are projected to the year 2100 in the contexts of shared socioeconomic development pathways (SSPs). This LME is projected to assume a place in the very low risk category (very high HDI) in 2100 under a sustainable development pathway. Under a fragmented world scenario, the LME is estimated to place in a medium-risk category (medium HDI) because of reduced income levels and increasing population values from those in a sustainable development pathway.

Climate-Related Threat Indices:

The Climate-Related Threat Indices utilize the HDI Gaps for present-day and projected 2100 scenarios. The contemporary climate index accounts for deaths and property losses due to storms, flooding and extreme temperatures incurred by coastal states during a 20-year period from 1994 to 2013 as hazard measures, the 2010 coastal population as proxy for exposure, and the present day HDI Gap as vulnerability measure.
The Contemporary Threat Index incorporates a Dependence Factor based on the fish protein contribution to dietary animal protein, and on the mean contribution of LME tourism to the national GDPs of LME coastal states. The HDI Gap and the degree of dependence on LME ecosystem services define the vulnerability of a coastal population. It also includes the average of risk related to extreme climate events, and the risk based on the degrading system states of an LME (e.g. overexploited fisheries, pollution levels, decrease in coastal ecosystem areas).
The 2100 sea level rise threat indices, each computed for the sustainable world and fragmented world development pathways, use the maximum projected sea level rise at the highest level of warming of 8.5 W/m² in 2100 as hazard measure, development pathway-specific 2100 populations in the 10 m × 10 km coast as exposure metrics, and development pathway-specific 2100 HDI Gaps as vulnerability estimates.
Present day climate threat index of this LME is within the very low-risk (very low threat) category. The combined contemporaneous risk due to extreme climate events, degrading LME states and the level of vulnerability of the coastal population, is very low. In a sustainable development scenario, the risk index from sea level rise in 2100 is very low, and increases to medium under a fragmented world development pathway.