Humboldt Current
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LME 13: Humbold Current

Bordering countries:

Chile, Peru

LME total area:

2,619,386 km²

LME overall risk:

This LME falls in the cluster of LMEs that exhibit low to medium levels of economic development (based on the night light development index) and medium levels of collapsed and overexploited fish stocks.
Based on a combined measure of the Human Development Index and the averaged indicators for fish & fisheries and pollution & ecosystem health modules, the overall risk factor is high.

Productivity

Chlorophyll-A:

The annual Chlorophyll a concentration (CHL) cycle has a maximum peak (0.487 mg.m^-3) in October and a minimum (0.363 mg.m^-3) during March. The average CHL is 0.417 mg.m^-3. Maximum primary productivity (307 g.C.m^-2.y^-1) occurred during 2005 and minimum primary productivity (261 g.C.m^-2.y^-1) during 1998. There is a statistically insignificant decreasing trend in Chlorophyll of -17.6 % from 2003 through 2013. The average primary productivity is 281 g.C.m^-2.y^-1, which places this LME in Group 3 of 5 categories (with 1 = lowest and 5= highest).

Primary productivity:

Sea Surface Temperature:

Between 1957 and 2012, the Humboldt Current LME #13 has warmed by 0.24°C, thus belonging to Category 4 (slow warming LME). This long-term warming trend was not uniform. It was punctuated by warm/cold events associated with El Niños and La Niñas, respectively, particularly by the El Niños 1983 and 1997. Because of the vast north-south extent of this LME, spatial variations within it are strong. The El Niños and La Niñas strongly affect the northern part of this LME (National Weather Service/Climate Prediction Center, 2007) yet do not exert strong impact on it southern part. The Humboldt Current experienced a 1°C cooling in 1957-1973, followed by a decade-long warming, which culminated in 1983. These opposite trends represent two major oceanic regimes. The all-time El Niño-related peak of 17.6°C in 1997 was exceptional. From 1999 through 2012 SST remained rather low, <16.5°C.

Fish and Fisheries

The Humboldt Current LME’s high productivity supports the world’s largest fisheries.

Annual catch:

In 1994, fisheries catches by Peru and Chile amounted to around 13 million t. These two countries account for 16% to 20% of the global fish catch, mostly in the form of small schooling pelagic fish such as sardines, anchovies (especially the ‘anchoveta’, Engraulis ringens) and mackerels. Total reported landings show considerable fluctuation, with two major peaks at over 10 million t and 13 million t in 1970 and 1994 respectively, which actual catches likely to be much higher.

Catch value:

The value of the reported landings also fluctuates, reaching about 9 billion US$ (in 2005 real US$) in 1994.

Marine Trophic Index and Fishing-in-Balance index:

The MTI, in this system, which in the early 1950s looked like most other LMEs (MTI of about 3.4), plunged as soon as the fisheries for anchoveta, a low-trophic level species, took off. Indeed, for two decades, this fishery was the largest single-species fishery in the world, with some of its fluctuations in landings reflected in the FiB index. Because of the dominance of anchoveta in the landings of the LME, the MTI and FiB index are not currently informative as to the status of the ecosystem. However, their trends with the anchoveta removed, and thus reflecting the assemblage exploited by coastal fisheries, show strong signs of "fishing down".

Stock status:

The Stock-Catch Status Plots indicate that about 60% of commercially exploited stocks in the LME are either overexploited or have collapsed. This is, at least in part, a definitional artefact, because of the classification of anchoveta as an overexploited stock, having experienced its maximum catch in the early 1970s, even though its catches have recovered in recent years. Here again, the analysis may benefit from being conducted without the anchoveta catch (see www.seaaroundus.org).

Catch from bottom impacting gear:

The percentage of catch from the bottom gear type to the total catch reached its peak at 13% in 1952 and then declined to less than 1% in the 1960s. In the recent decade, this percentage ranged between 1.4 and 2%.

Fishing effort:

The total effective effort continuously increased from around 15 million kW in the 1950s to its peak at 180 million kW in the mid- 2000s.

Primary Production Required:

The primary production required (PPR) to sustain the reported landings reached 20% of the observed primary production in the LME in the mid-1990s, and has fluctuated around this level in recent years.

Catch potential projections (under global warming):

Pollution and Ecosystem Health

Pollution

Nutrient ratio, Nitrogen load and Merged Indicator:

Human activities in watersheds are affecting nutrients transported by rivers into LMEs. Large amounts of nutrients (in particular nitrogen load) entering coastal waters of LMEs can result in high biomass algal blooms, leading to hypoxic or anoxic conditions, increased turbidity and changes in community composition, among other effects. In addition, changes in the ratio of nutrients entering LMEs can result in dominance by algal species that have deleterious effects (toxic, clog gills of shellfish, etc.) on ecosystems and humans. An overall nutrient indicator (Merged Nutrient Indicator) based on 2 sub-indicators: Nitrogen Load and Nutrient Ratio (ratio of dissolved Silica to Nitrogen or Phosphorus - the Index of Coastal Eutrophication Potential or ICEP) was calculated.

Nitrogen load:

The Nitrogen Load risk level for contemporary (2000) conditions was low (level 2 of the five risk categories, where 1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). Based on a “current trends” scenario (Global Orchestration), this remained low in 2030 and increased to moderate by 2050.

Nutrient ratio:

The Nutrient Ratio (ICEP) risk level for contemporary (2000) conditions was very low (1). According to the Global Orchestration scenario, this remained the same in 2030 and increased to low in 2050.

Merged nutrient indicator:

The risk level for the Merged Nutrient Indicator for contemporary (2000) conditions was low (2). According to the Global Orchestration scenario, this remained the same in 2030 and increased to moderate in 2050.

POPs:

Data are available for three samples at three locations in Chile. These locations show low concentrations for all the indicators. The average concentration (ng.g^-1 of pellets) was 29 (range 4 – 50 ng.g^-1) for PCBs, 8 (range 2 – 16 ng.g^-1) for DDTs, and 1.0 (range 0.2 – 2.5 ng.g^-1) for HCHs. The PCBs and DDTs averages correspond to risk category 2 and HCHs to risk category 1, of the five risk categories (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). Relatively higher PCB concentrations at San Vicente and San Antonio are probably due to proximity to large cities.

Plastic debris:

Modelled estimates of floating plastic abundance (items km^-2), for both micro-plastic (<4.75 mm) and macro-plastic (>4.75 mm), indicate that this LME is in the group with relatively low levels of plastic concentration. Estimates are based on three proxy sources of litter: shipping density, coastal population density and the level of urbanisation within major watersheds, with enhanced run-off. The low values are due to the relative remoteness of this LME from significant sources of plastic. The abundance of floating plastic in this category is estimated to be on average over 40 times lower that those LMEs with the highest values. There is evidence from sea-based direct observations and towed nets to support this conclusion.

Ecosystem Health

Mangrove and coral cover:

0.0001% of this LME is covered by mangroves (US Geological Survey, 2011).

Reefs at risk:

Not applicable.

Marine Protected Area change:

The Humboldt Current LME experienced an increase in MPA coverage from 2,463 km² prior to 1983 to 5,798 km² by 2014. This represents an increase of 135%, within the low category of MPA change.

Cumulative Human Impact:

The Humboldt Current LME experiences below average overall cumulative human impact (score 3.01; maximum LME score 5.22), but which is still well above the LME with the least cumulative impact. It falls in risk category 2 of the five risk categories (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk). This LME is most vulnerable to climate change. Of the 19 individual stressors, three connected to climate change have the highest average impact on the LME: ocean acidification (0.94; maximum in other LMEs was 1.20), UV radiation (0.71; maximum in other LMEs was 0.76), and sea surface temperature (0.88; maximum in other LMEs was 2.16). Other key stressors include commercial shipping, ocean based pollution, and demersal destructive commercial fishing.

Ocean Health Index:

The Humboldt Current LME scores below average on the Ocean Health Index compared to other LMEs (score 70 out of 100; range for other LMEs was 57 to 82). This score indicates that the LME is well below its optimal level of ocean health, although there are some aspects that are doing well. Its score in 2013 decreased 1 point compared to the previous year, due in large part to changes in the scores for natural products. This LME scores lowest on natural products, coastal protection, carbon storage, and tourism & recreation goals and highest on artisanal fishing opportunities, coastal livelihoods, and lasting special places goals. It falls in risk 3 of the five risk categories, which is an average level of risk (1 = lowest risk; 5 = highest risk).

Socio-economics

Indicators of demographic trends, economic dependence on ecosystem services, human wellbeing and vulnerability to present-day extreme climate events and projected sea level rise, are assessed for the Humboldt Current LME. To compare and rank LMEs, they were classified into five categories of risk (from 1 to 5, corresponding to lowest, low, medium, high and highest risk, respectively) based on the values of the individual indicators. In the case of economic revenues, the LMEs were grouped to 5 classes of revenues from lowest, low, medium, high and highest, as revenues did not translate to risk.

Population:

The littoral area includes the Pacific coasts of Peru and Chile, and Argentina’s Tierra del Fuego, covering a total of 725,678 km². A current population of 30 million is projected to more than double to 68 million in 2100, and density increasing from 42 persons per km² in 2010 to 94 per km² by 2100. About 31% of coastal population lives in rural areas, and is projected to decrease in share to 25% in 2100.

Coastal poor:

The indigent population makes up 20% of the LME’s coastal dwellers. The Humboldt Current LME places in the high-risk category based on percentage and absolute number of coastal poor (present day estimate).

Revenues and Spatial Wealth Distribution:

Fishing and tourism depend on ecosystem services provided by LMEs. The Humboldt Current LME ranks in the very high revenue category in fishing revenues based on yearly average total ex-vessel price of US 2013 $5,353 million for the period 2001-2010. Fish protein accounts for 16% of the total animal protein consumption of the coastal population. Its yearly average tourism revenue for 2004-2013 of US 2013 $25,715 million places it in the medium revenue category. On average, LME-based tourism income contributes 8% to the national GDPs of the LME coastal states. Spatial distribution of economic activity (e.g. spatial wealth distribution) measured by night-light and population distribution as coarse proxies can range from 0.0000 (totally equal distribution and lowest risk) to 1.0000 (concentrated in 1 place and most inequitable and highest risk). The Night Light Development Index (NLDI) thus indicates the level of spatial economic development, and that for the Humboldt Current LME falls in the category with medium risk.

Human Development Index:

Using the Human Development Index (HDI) that integrates measures of health, education and income, the present-day Humboldt Current LME HDI belongs to the high HDI and high-risk category. Based on an HDI of 0.767, this LME has an HDI Gap of 0.233, the difference between present and highest possible HDI (1.000). The HDI Gap measures an overall vulnerability to external events such as disease or extreme climate related events, due to less than perfect health, education, and income levels, and is independent of the harshness of and exposure to specific external shocks.
HDI values are projected to the year 2100 in the contexts of shared socioeconomic development pathways (SSPs). The Humboldt Current LME is projected to assume a place with the very low risk category (very high HDI) in 2100 under a sustainable development pathway or scenario. Under a fragmented world scenario, this LME is estimated to place in the high-risk category (low HDI) because of reduced income level and increased population size compared to estimated income and population values in a sustainable development pathway.

Climate-Related Threat Indices:

The Climate-Related Threat Indices utilize the HDI Gaps for present-day and projected 2100 scenarios. The contemporary climate index accounts for deaths and property losses due to storms, flooding and extreme temperatures incurred by coastal states during a 20-year period from 1994 to 2013 as hazard measures, the 2010 coastal population as proxy for exposure, and the present day HDI Gap as vulnerability measure.
The Contemporary Threat Index incorporates a Dependence Factor based on the fish protein contribution to dietary animal protein, and on the mean contribution of LME tourism to the national GDPs of LME coastal states. The HDI Gap and the degree of dependence on LME ecosystem services define the vulnerability of a coastal population. It also includes the average of risk related to extreme climate events, and the risk based on the degrading system states of an LME (e.g. overexploited fisheries, pollution levels, decrease in coastal ecosystem areas).
The 2100 sea level rise threat indices, each computed for the sustainable world and fragmented world development pathways, use the maximum projected sea level rise at the highest level of warming of 8.5 W/m² in 2100 as hazard measure, development pathway-specific 2100 populations in the 10 m × 10 km coast as exposure metrics, and development pathway-specific 2100 HDI Gaps as vulnerability estimates.
Present day climate threat index to the Humboldt Current LME is within the high-risk (high threat) category. The combined contemporaneous risk due to extreme climate events, degrading LME states and the level of vulnerability of the coastal population, is high. In a sustainable development scenario, the risk index from sea level rise in 2100 is very low, and increases to high risk under a fragmented world development pathway.

Governance

Governance architecture:

The arrangements for major transboundary issues within the jurisdiction of the countries are well integrated with both the CPPS and the Lima Convention and its protocols having formal linkages. However, the two arrangements for high seas fisheries (IATTC and SPRFMO) do not appear to have any formal linkages with each other or with the “within country” arrangements for fisheries, pollution and biodiversity. Nevertheless, this LME has been assigned an overall integration score of 1.0 due to the presence of the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific (CPPS) with its ability to function as an overall policy coordinating organization for the key transboundary issues within the LME.
The overall scores for the ranking of risk were: